aryan vs dravidian featuresshoprider mobility scooter second hand

[27] Traders and religious leaders travelled to southeast Asia and played an important role in the cultural Indianisation of the region. Thus, every European country was racing to justify that there's is the one, the provider of the Mother Tongue'. Some theories concern the direction of derivation between tami and drvia; such linguists as Zvelebil assert that the direction is from tami to drvia.[32]. Only accusative (*-ay, *-n), dative (*-[n]kk), and possibly locative can be reconstructed for Proto-Dravidian. Looks -Aryans are fair skinned as compared to Dravidians. This designation is not restricted by the shade of the skin, knowledge, wisdom, wealth, profession nor sex. One cannot have a better example of the historicity of the event that occurred few years after, as well as the scientific knowledge to be able to forecast an event with such accuracy. Dravidians are in fact the original inhabitants of India, the Aryans were Pastoral Herders from Kazakhstan and Siberia [code ](Andronovo culture)[/ The word Aryans was brutally used by Hitler during world war second to attain exclusion of Jews and other ethnicities from a specific group of Germans. [101][102] The Sangam landscape was classified into five categories, thinais, based on the mood, the season and the land. Many literary works were composed in Carnatic style and it soon spread wide in the Dravidian regions. As we know, the God was concerned about the intentions of the humans, now gave them different speeches, made them quarrel with each other, and The Great Dispersion took place in 2000BC. The Aryans had no respect for the Indian culture and treated the natives as slaves. [52] According to another study, the neolithic farmers ancestry component forms the main ancestry of modern South Asians. By innovating a feminine singular *aw-a she (female human), the South Dravidian languages thus restricted the meaning of *a-tu to it (nonhuman animate/thing). [1] Dravidian speakers form the majority of the population of South India and are natively found in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan,[2] Bangladesh,[3] the Maldives, Nepal,[4] Bhutan[5] and Sri Lanka. The mounds of earth, that covered bones and skeletons of the indigenous, now unearthed highly developed cities with all the facilities for the residents. It was decided that the area south of the Vindhya would be suitable. The river had dried up around 1800 BC, where as it was in its full glory as far back as 3000 BC and earlier. [122] Ancient literary works, such as the Cilappatikaram, describe a system of music. Aryans and Dravidians View of historian P.T. They are also found in large numbers in Middle East countries, the Americas and Australia. These conquerors were interested in conquering parts in North India, dismantling the local cultures and pushing the indigenous Dravidian tribes of Dravidians towards thesouth. [21], The process of post-Harappan/Dravidian influences on southern India has tentatively been called "Dravidianization",[22] and is reflected in the post-Harappan mixture of IVC and Ancient Ancestral South Indian people. Institute of Indology in Berlin and Bonn Uni in Germany, Edinburgh, Oxford, Cambridge and London unis in G.B., Yale, John Hopkins, and Columbia Unis in the U.S.A. and College de France. The third-person pronouns are derived from deictic bases *aH- that, *iH- this, and *yaH- what.. Welcome to America", "South and Island Southeast Asia; Languages", "The origins of Indians: What our genes are telling us", "Indian Craniometric Variability and Affinities", "Genetic study of Dravidian castes of Tamil Nadu", "Prehistoric genomes from the world's first farmers in the Zagros mountains reveal different Neolithic ancestry for Europeans and South Asians", "Y-chromosomal sequences of diverse Indian populations and the ancestry of the Andamanese", "Ancestry-Specific Analyses Reveal Differential Demographic Histories and Opposite Selective Pressures in Modern South Asian Populations", "An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers", "Pot route could have linked Indus & Vaigai", "Peoples and languages in pre-Islamic Indus valley", "A Note on the Muruku Sign of the Indus Script in light of the Mayiladuthurai Stone Axe Discovery", "How climate change ended world's first great civilisations", "Climate change caused Indus Valley civilization collapse", Dravidian languages Britannica Online Encyclopedia, "Tamil leads as India tops film production", "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia", "Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state", "Aryan migration: Everything you need to know about the new study on Indian genetics", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dravidian_peoples&oldid=1139791998, Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages, Articles using infobox ethnic group with image parameters, Articles with unsourced statements from April 2019, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2021, Articles containing Sanskrit-language text, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Gondi belong to the central Dravidian subgroup. These neolithic farmers migrated from the Fertile Crescent, most likely from a region near the Zagros Mountains in modern-day Iran, to South Asia some 10,000 years ago. Upon subsidence of The Great Flood, Noah came down to the plains and busied himself tending a vineyard. Further, he proposed that, 'we replace her old and ancient education system, her culture, for if the Indians think that, if all that is foreign and English is good and greater than their own, they will loose their self-esteem, and they will become what we want them, a truly dominated nation'. had 4582% Iranian farmer-related ancestry and 1150% AASI (or Andamanese-related hunter-gatherer ancestry). [24][note 2][25] Later, a component termed "AASI", found to be the predominant element in ASI, was distinguished in subsequent studies. The name Dravida is the name of the people speaking a [51], Recent studies have shown that the proto-Dravidians were descendants of neolithic farmers, who are suggested to have migrated from the Zagros Mountains in modern-day Iran to northern South Asia some 10,000 years ago. The lungi consists of a colourful checked cotton cloth. They may have been indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, but origins in, or influence from, western Asia have also been proposed. Dr Ambedkar's researches into Rigveda conclusively proved that the race of Aryans did not come from outside India. Moorjani et al. Lockard: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Divorce vs. Talaq: What's the difference? Portuguese explorers like Vasco de Gama were motivated to expand mainly for the spice markets of Calicut (today called Kozhikode) in modern-day Kerala. [122] The theatrical culture flourished during the early Sangam age. Rigveda is a huge scripture, consisting of ten books. Over many centuries a fusion of. My response is based on today not the past. Past is where we came from but we live today and tomorrow. Other than the languages spoken, fundamental Theres some overlap of language with culture, but on the whole, there are huge commonalities of Dravidian is a regional race from the south of India. There are around 14 Aboriginal tribes mentioned in ancient texts, one of them being Dravidas. Indian" -related . I thought, if at all, the word is related to the word Iran, the correct word should have been Iranian, meaning the people coming from Ira-n, i.e. or by adding an interrogative particle (*-) to the phrase or clause questioned. The reconstruction for 9, however, has some problems. The British adopted different tactics, resulted in the now famous policy of Divide and Rule. [25] According to Narasimhan et al., this mixed population, which probably was native to the Indus Valley Civilisation, contributed significantly to both the ANI and ASI, the formation of which took shape during the 2nd millennium BCE. What tasks were allocated to the Shudras? The final element (predicate) in a sentence can be verbal or nominal. Based on a proto-Dravidian assumption, they proposed readings of many signs, some agreeing with the suggested readings of Heras and Knorozov (such as equating the "fish" sign with the Dravidian word for fish, "min") but disagreeing on several other readings. "[90], With the rise of the Kuru Kingdom a process of Sanskritization started which influenced all of India, with the populations of the north of the Indian subcontinent predominantly speaking the Indo-Aryan languages.[91]. They also set the caste system in India consisting of 4 general tribes of priests, businessmen and aristocrats and scheduled castes. There was always to and fro movement of people. The outcome at the last Cal. Ghadhiji couldn't oblige, and that was a great disappointment for Ambedkarji. The Egyptian priests used the Hieratic script, where as the common men used Demotic script. The obvious questions would be, whether the river was live and flowing as described in the Rigveda in 1000 BC, or even when the Aryans descended upon India in 1500 BC? Most of the names of hills, rivers, villages and towns particularly in North India are austric (Mundaric/tribal)in origin and not in Indo-Aryan languages. Natural justice demands that the blacks of the world should unite, form an International Draviodian League and regain the rule of the world. The participants being the Jews, Christians Muslims and the Hindus, it was decided, with the agreement of more than 50 well known historians, that the Aryan Invasion Theory be called the Aryan Migration Theory. Drunk Driving: Awake at the Wheel. NOW, excavations has shown that great towns flourished as long ago as 3000 BC'. This was reflected in the demonstrative pronouns, which in the singular were masculine *aw-antu he (man) and non-masculine *a-tu other (meaning both woman and any nonhuman animate or thing). 469654 >>469652 even african 'people' look better than this monster [86] While J. Bloch and M. Witzel believe that the Indo-Aryans moved into an already Dravidian-speaking area after the oldest parts of the Rig Veda were already composed. When they get older, around the age when puberty begins, they transition to a langa voni or half-sari, which is composed of a skirt tied at the waist along with a cloth draped over a blouse. [56] Gallego Romero notes that Indians who are lactose-tolerant show a genetic pattern regarding this tolerance which is "characteristic of the common European mutation". Because of contact with Hindi and Bengali, Kurukh and Malto introduced gender distinction in the first and second persons also. The Governor called the Aryan-Dravidian divide a handiwork of the British, which has been criticised as toeing the Hindutva line on the issue. (2016) discern four major ancestries in mainland India, namely ANI, ASI, Ancestral Austro-Asiatic tribals (AAA) and Ancestral Tibeto-Burman (ATB). Das needs to clarify what he means by 'Aryanisation of India'. Phonological features of Dravidian languages, Historical development of Dravidian phonology, South-Central Dravidian phonological development, Central Dravidian phonological development. [112] It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory. This indicates there has been no mix of foreign and local DNA. The formation of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal took place in 1784, that was followed by Socitie Asiatique of Paris in 1822, Royal Asiatic Society of G.B. post-dating Harappan decline) stone celt allegedly marked with Indus signs has been considered by some to be significant for the Dravidian identification. [109] The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appears predominantly as a goddess. They destroyed the cities they entered and left the ruins to decay. Gender is specified in the third person in Dravidian but not in the first and second persons; he, she, and it are differentiated, but I, we, and you do not reflect gender. Distribution of subgroups of Dravidian languages: Derenko: "The spread of these new technologies has been associated with the dispersal of Dravidian and Indo-European languages in southern Asia. This system is preserved by the languages of Central Dravidian and South-Central Dravidian (other than Telugu). The framers of the fiction of the Aryans still had some way to go. Each of the major Dravidian languages has its own film industry like Kollywood (Tamil), Tollywood (Telugu), Sandalwood (Kannada), Mollywood (Malayalam). It would have made a big difference to the promoters of the AIT, if the geneticists had confirmed the existence of Aryan (European) genes among the Indians. It was a bold step taken by the committee of the Cal. Other gods mentioned were Mayyon and Vaali, now identified with Krishna and Balarama, who are all major deities in Hinduism today. Prof. M Witzel has shown great courage in agreeing this change. It was impossible to cross, however, Vindhya had great respect for the Muni, he agreed to lower its heights to allow them to cross, and further agreed that he would stay at that height to allow them to return when the task is completed. Weech (History of the World) opines that 'the **** type ssems early to have passed from Africa to South India', where as Bouquet (Comparative Religion) has not ruled out 'sea-borne invasion'. The Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT) was part of the Divide & Rule Policy, which was carried out very successfully. It was one learned Irishman, Bishop James Ussher, formulated in the 17th century, the chronology of God's creation.The God created the world in 4004BC. (2013) describe three scenarios regarding the Peopling of India: According to Gallego Romero et al. (2019) shows that the native South Asian genetic component is distinct from the Andamanese and thus that the Andamanese (Onge) are an imperfect and imprecise proxy for "ASI" ancestry in South Asians (there is difficulty detecting ASI ancestry in the North Indian Gujarati when the Andamanese Onge are used). What do the historians say about the ancestors of the Aryans? South Dravidian and South-Central Dravidian languages innovated a second singular form in the first person, *n/*an-, perhaps backformed by analogy from the first inclusive plural *m/*am-. A C Bouquet in Comparative Religion - They were people very much the type of our Scandinavian fore-fathers, hard-fighting, heavy-drinking folk. It includes Caucasians and also their sub-race. The reasons could be to retire a horse because of old age or due to some injury while serving his master. The subject matter was, by a simple stroke of pen, changed from Annihilation to Assimilation. Wouldn't you like to know that Indian cattle have HUMPS on their backs (ZEBU-BOS INDICUS), and the European cattle (Longhorn, Hereford, BOS TAURUS) have no humps on their backs! He wanted Ghadhiji to under-take movement to abolish the caste system. The study further showed that the native South Asians, north and south, form a unique group distinct from "Australo-Melanesians". However, the negotiations carried out with the CDE in respect of the Text-book Revision, would amply explain, that hard work lies ahead of the negotiators. Medieval Tamil guilds and trading organisations like the Ayyavole and Manigramam played an important role in the southeast Asia trade. The last Ice-Age commenced to recede 10000 years ago (8000 BC). Aryans were fair skinned, tall, and spoke a different language from Dravidians who were dark, short and spoke Dravidian language. Specifically, Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains and Zoroastrians have a history of using the word Aryan to mean the speaker of a native language. Prakrit. Sports like Kambala, Jallikattu, Kabaddi, Vallam Kali, Lambs and Tigers and Maramadi remain strong among Dravidian ethnic groups. [18][19] The Brahui population of Balochistan in Pakistan has been taken by some as the linguistic equivalent of a relict population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo-Aryan languages. However, he was bent on finding the truth about the creators of the caste system - The Aryans. They were fond of horse-racing, chariot-racing, dancing, gambling and wrestling. The article seems to be a consequence of erroneous scholariness and faulty research. How can we blame anyone but ourselves, for the present situation, prevailing in the Indian societies - provincialism, caste and corruption? Dravidian speakers in southern India wear varied traditional costumes depending on their region, largely influenced by local customs and traditions. The debate over the Aryan-Dravidian Distinction: Aryan Invasion and Migration Theory: This theory which has been floated by the British has attributed to the Aryan- Dravidian distinction and has been always been contested by the political class. Dravidian languages evolved from Proto-Dravidian language. Kanakadasa is another notable Carnatic musician who was Purandaradasa's contemporary. The samples analysed by Narasimhan et al. If the word 'Aryan' is related to 'arya', the meaning of Aryan would be 'a person of noble character'. He further states that, 'by the year 1619 AD, a million or more black slaves had already been brought to the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Caribbean and South America'. Each of the Dravidian languages has developed several postpositions from independent words that indicate case meanings (e.g., near, up to, until, purpose, cause, above, below, by the side of). Interrogative sentences (questions) are formed by using either an interrogative pronoun or adverb (meaning who, which, when, where, etc.) Biologically bo th the north and south Indians are of the same Caucasian race, only when closer to the equator the skin becomes darker, and under the influence of constant heat the bodily frame tends to become a little smaller. It also mentions that the league of Tamil kingdoms had been in existence for 113 years by that time. [23] Many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language, the language of the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian. [23]Genetically, the Ancient Indus Valley people were composed of an Iranian Farmer- Gatherers and Indian Hunter-Gatherers or "First If one rejects the term Aryan, one should better speak only of Tamilian, not Dravidian. He found the word ARYA used 33 times in the whole scripture, and in each case, the use did not refer to an ethnicity or a race. 66 years passed by. Medieval South Indian guilds and trading organisations like the "Ayyavole of Karnataka and Manigramam" played an important role in the Southeast Asia trade,[27] and the cultural Indianisation of the region. What is the origin of the word Dravidian? Dr Ambedkarji examined the Rigveda - supposedly the First Book of the Aryans as per Max Muller, written in 1000 BC. According to Mondal et al. Alexander Cunningham, then Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, saw characters written on seals that had been found in the rubble'. Aryans have mingled with the authentic Indian population, so no one can be characterized as a pure Dravidian or as a pure Aryan. It is now a general knowledge that the river did exist, supported by the scientific researches, satellite photography and carbon dating etc that have been carried out. However, because Aryans were not able to force the evacuation of all Dravidians to Southern India, some became slaves of Aryans and still reside in Northern India. [127] Among some communities, young girls received preliminary training up until the onset of puberty. Telugu of South-Central Dravidian and Kurukh-Malto of North Dravidian have preserved the Proto-Dravidian gender in the singular but independently extended the meaning of *aw-ar to human as happened in South Dravidian. [74], Paleoclimatologists believe the fall of the Indus Valley Civilisation and eastward migration during the late Harappan period was due to climate change in the region, with a 200-year long drought being the major factor. I hope, there are many more like you and who also share. Dravidian languages use subjectobjectverb (SOV) word order; the verb occupies the final position in a sentence, a characteristic that is also true of the Indo-Aryan languages. It must be, because we are Aryans the Barbarians, and Dravidians the Squat Creatures! The basic forms of numerals have neuter (others) agreement; a human suffix *-war or a derivative thereof is added to numeral roots when they classify the human category. It is the truth, when the praise comes from an enemy. [82][80][83][84], Ancient Tamil grammatical works Tolkappiyam, the ten anthologies Pattuppu, and the eight anthologies Euttokai shed light on early ancient Dravidian religion. [114][116] In north India, Brihat-samhita by Varhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from the 6th century describing the design and construction of Nagara-style Hindu temples. Dravidians have a different set of ethnic beliefs. There are around 250 million native speakers of Dravidian languages. [117][118][119] Traditional Dravidian architecture and symbolism are also based on Agamas. This is very valuable material. [31] Epigraphic evidence of an ethnic group termed as such is found in ancient India where a number of inscriptions have come to light datable from the 6th to the 5th century BCE mentioning Damela or Dameda persons. The meaning categories are male human (man), female human (woman), human (people), and others, the last contrasting with the three former categories. Proto-Dravidian *to/*to occurs in compounds with the words for 10, 100, 1,000 as second members with the meaning 1/10th lesscomparable to Tamil to-u 90 (or 10 less 100), toyiram 900 (100 less 1,000), and on-pattu 9 (1 less 10). However, Telugu tom-badi (from *to-pat) 90 implies that *to means 9. The South Dravidian languages have cognates that support the first, 1/10th less, meaning. Was there any fair-skinned population at the time of the Aryan arrival around 1500 BC? I guess, the writers or speakers of the IVC script rode horses at the Indus. The importance of the above is that Equus Sivalensis, the South-East Asian breed have 17 pairs of ribs, where as, the Central Asian and European horses, called Equus Przevaalskii, have 18 pairs of ribs. The historian, Hendrik Van Loon,in his book 'The Story of Mankind', published 1921, provides an interesting meaning, even though incorrect in my opinion, of the word 'Aryan'. The river had dried up even before the arrival of the Illiterates. Aryans-North Indians are Sanscrit language based speakers and Dravidyans-south Indians are Tamil language based speakers. Both groups of these Indi [8] South Dravidian I (including pre-Tamil) and South Dravidian II (including pre-Telugu) split around the eleventh century BCE, with the other major branches splitting off at around the same time. Culture He was seen naked by his son Ham, who became the victim of his father's curse - all his progeny would be as dark as night and serve the descendants of Shem and Japhet. The most commonly spoken Dravidian languages are Telugu (), Tamil (), Kannada (), Malayalam (), Brahui (), Tulu (), Gondi and Coorg. They had figures of humans and animals and a very short inscription of a few letters each, in an UNKNOWN script, which has been called the Indus or Harappan script. I am, perhaps, missing the point, Ben, that you are trying to make, please clarify. Gandhari was from Gandhar (Afghanistan), Madri was from Madrid (Spain); Muni Pulestin went to the area now known as Palestine and Rishi Tamas settled on the banks of the river Thames; Russia was Rishi-alaya, and America was Amarice-puri; the river Mekong was Ma Ganga, and river Nile was Nil Ganga; the scriptures clearly, have indicated that the Sapt-Rishis went to every corner of the world to transmit knowledge and help the communities. (2019) conclude that ANI and ASI were formed in the 2nd millennium BCE. Between the three of them, they have produced world's alphabets, excluding the Chinese and the related ones. (2011), their research on lactose tolerance in India suggests that "the west Eurasian genetic contribution identified by Reich et al. [8] According to Krishnamurti, Proto-Dravidian may have been spoken in the Indus civilisation, suggesting a "tentative date of Proto-Dravidian around the early part of the third millennium. According to Narasimhan et al. The people of India belong to different races and have gained appreciation for their physical traits. We don't demand any better! [95] Hinduism can be regarded as a religious and cultural fusion[79][note 3] or synthesis[81] between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, and other local elements. The dark skinned people are the pioneers of civilizations. Relative clauses can be formed by changing the verb to a tensed participle and by shifting the noun that it qualifies to the following position. This event occurred some 5000 years ago, just after Lord Krishna left this world as well as the commencement of the Kali Era. Toda and Erukala (a dialect of Tamil) of South Dravidian and Brahui of North Dravidian have lost gender and preserved only number. The subject for discussion -Aryan vs Dravidian- has special significance for the Europeans, that is further highlighted by the last Text Book Revision conducted by the CA Educational Authority. Unlike Indo-Aryan speakers, most Dravidian women do not cover their head with the pallu except in areas of North Karnataka. A very interesting story about Agatsya Muni would explain the meaning of the word 'dravid'. [88] According to Erdosy, the most plausible explanation for the presence of Dravidian structural features in Old Indo-Aryan is that the majority of early Old Indo-Aryan speakers had a Dravidian mother tongue which they gradually abandoned. Under the guidance of St. Francis Xavier, Inquisition was carried out. Mudumby Narasimhachary (Ed) (1976). [85] Some of those for which Dravidian etymologies are certain include kulya "nest", kulpha "ankle", daa "stick", kla "slope", bila "hollow", khala "threshing floor". In the plural, South Dravidian languages have generalized the meaning of *aw-ar to human (men, men and women, or women), thus restricting the meaning of *aw-ay to nonhuman (nonhuman animates and things). In this, they have failed miserably to locate a single European country that could provide the required qualifications - culture and language. Thus,every aspect of the human life, that is considered beneficial to the human society, was qualified by the word 'arya'. Revision - Guess-work needs to be discarded and correct history needs to be taught in schools. The authors found that the respective amounts of those ancestries varied significantly between individuals, and concluded that more samples are needed to get the full picture of Indian population history. The Aryans had no word for brick in their language. The nose shows a wide range of variation, from fine to broad. [30] In the Sanskrit tradition the word drvia was also used to denote the geographical region of South India. Why is it that no steps have been taken to correct the history of India since Independence? [96] Sivan was also seen as the supreme God. It goes on to explain that,for a long time, after their arrival in India, they were in many ways less civilized than the citizens of Mohenjo-daro had been. Imagine being a Kashmiri/Punjabi aryan and sharing a country with people who look like this. Aryans can easily speak Hindi. Dravidian languages show extensive lexical (vocabulary) borrowing, but only a few traits of structural (either phonological or grammatical) borrowing from Indo-Aryan, whereas Indo-Aryan shows more structural than lexical borrowings from the Dravidian languages. The word 'arya' was part of the words, e.g. As noted above, in most of the languages, adverbs of time and place carry case inflection like nouns but lack gender and number distinction. [120] The Agamas are a collection of Tamil and Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of murti, worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga. Or were they all dark-skinned people? The changing conditions for survival in the last 175 years, brought self-interest in the fore-front, in turn created protective societies, that came to be known as 'caste system, which is a sickness in the body 'Hinduism'. Examples include Telugu reu pustaklu two books and naluguru manuulu four people (-guru is from *-war). They were certainly not the Aryans the Conquistadores of the 'A World History' nor the Dravidians, docile little brown men of Van Loon. Mary Stanton & Albert Hyma in Streams of Civilization (1976) - They were nomads, lived of the meat of their herds and what loot they could gather from pillaged and conquered cities. It was used by him to include a specific group of people who are native speakers of 19th century Indo-European languages. It has a Priestly Decree, issued in 197 BC, inscribed in three scripts in two languages, one Greek and two Egyptian scripts. According to Max Muller, the Mahabharat war took place in 1200BC. The Portuguese already had a foot-hold in Goa, the Capital of their Eastern Empire. and Ireland in 1823, and its branches in Bombay, Ceylon, China and Malaysia, American Oriental Society in 1842, and German Oriental society in 1844.

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